“The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. We have seen
his glory…” (John I: 14, 1963, p. 96)
Acknowledgments
I may thank Professor Michael
Cole and Lois Holzman, Marcio Perez and Fanny who helped me with the current
english version of article.
Sociocultural-historical roots of Activity
People
live embedded in an environment impregnated by different modes of communication
which are not restricted to verbal discourse. Many means of mediation are used
as vehicles to achieve human relational practices.
Among
sign systems, alphabetical and numerical signs were
once the key to knowledge of the origins of mind in society. It is reasonable to say that thinking mediated by signs,
particularly through words and numbers, was connected to the need of
communication among people in their collaborative efforts to meet the challenges of problems in the real world. They both had significant
influence on human psychic activity
and renewed it completely renewed in sociocultural-historical terms. (Leontiev,
1978; Luria, 1992; Vygotsky, 1987).
If humanity’s origins are reputed to be sociocultural and historical, it is not hard to imagine that a continuous improvement of tools used in work, along with new complex
aspects of productive forces, took shape under economic and political constraints,
and indeed contributed to empower psyche.
Instrumental use of the technology
of communication and information (TCI) in human relational practices framed
by work, combined with sign systems cognition scaffolding, gave rise to the mind in society thesis as an unhierarchical
net of different kinds of meaning transporters, whatsoever overenriching and
reshaping its activity in the fashion of its closest retort psyche-physiologic
functioning: the cyberspace or digitized
information network - an untouchable flood of interconnected sign systems - . (Gibson, 1984).
Activity According to Cultural Psychology
Relational
practices at work as a convincing explanation of sociocultural mind is attributed to historical-dialectical
materialism (Marx, 1975, 1976). Only under the
Marxist doctrine on human consciousness was a general theory of mind in society as a forged sociocultural-historical
way or thinking (internalization of social functions) once possible. According
the Marxist assumption, human cultural joint activity makes possible a brand
new qualitative psyche functioning. (Vygotsky & Luria,
1996).
The
thesis of the origins of sociocultural psyche is absolutely linked
to dialectical-materialism, as well as Vigotsky’s cultural-historical theory (CHT) of human development. Vigotsky himself
asserted it in many papers, in which one can
find several claims of scholars to join a collaborative enterprise in order to
build a “Marxist” psychological science: socio-historical
psychology (Bock, Furtado, & Gonçalves, 2001;
Elhammoumi, 2006; Romanelli, 2011; Vygotsky,
1994,1996).
After
Vigotsky’s untimelly death, his closest collaborators, Leontiev and Luria,
undertook the task of advancing his work and submitting it to the doctrinal constraints
of Marxism, creating so-called activity
theory (AT) (Japiassu, 2007; Leontiev,
1983; Luria, 1994).
What
makes activity theory/AT go far beyond
cultural-historical theory/CHT boundaries
on psychological studies is the first large focus on unpredictable plenty of senses
negotiated along social relations designed by practice. In doing so, AT indeed extends
Vigotsky’s initial queries, which were restricted to the role that verbal sign
systems play
in psychological functioning (Luria, 1987; Zinchenco, 1998).
Leontiev
and Luria introduced some of promising researchers of their time to traditional
socio-historical psychology studies. Among
them, there were Vasili Davidov (1988), Mario Golder (2002), Guillermo Blanck
(Vygotsky, 2001) and Michael Cole (1998a). Michael Cole (personally directed by
Luria) is the only one that still living, and is today a major manager of
projects run under the sponsorship of the Laboratory of Comparative Human
Cognition/University of California in San Diego (www.lchc.ucsd.edu
).
Making
good use of Marxist and Vigotsky beliefs, free of Marxist doctrinal
constraints, Cole (1998a, p. 6) set out cultural-historical
activity theory (CHAT) as fundamental
for cultural psychology: an attempt
to unite AT and CHT and keep them welcoming and open to dialogue with other schools
of understanding human psyche.
Cultural psychology is
described by Cole (1998a, p.104-105) as a comprehensive discipline that does
not underestimate either naturalistic or cultural conceptions of human thinking
and development. According to Cole, CP is an “uneclectic” sociocultural approach to psyche. For the good of the truth, cultural
psychology is Cole’s honest answer to some attacks focusing on CHAT from
intolerant defenders of CHT and AT, who
do not believe there is any possibility of reconciliation between these two
theories or their use outside Marxism boundaries – despite the fact that both of
these echoed Vigotsky’s initial researches and studies.
Cole’s
cultural psychology is a convincing
argument for socioculturalism (the
Pan-American school of psychology that he proposed) and its theoretical support
(CHAT). He argues there is no hidden “international conspiracy” to cut out the dialectical-materialist
roots of cultural-historical theory. (Duarte
Jr., 2001; Elhammoumi, 2009; Toomela&Valsiner, 2010)
Socioculturalism attempts
to “clean out” CHT’s Marxist foundations sounds to me and others like an
attempt to narrow down scholarly discussion into a boring school competition, in
which case “neomarxist” thinkers demand “private property” rights on theories derived
from dialectical-historical-materialism. This dispute would leed me to far from
the goal of this paper, the focus on the impact of TCI on sociocultural mind, particularly on the plastic aspect of activity as thinking at work - a genuinely
continuous relational and collaborative developmental process affected by sign
systems linked into a network -.
It
is relevant to note that neither Leontiev´s nor Luria’s accounts of activity ever asserted that Vigotsky denied
that materialist-dialectical-historical approach is key to a genuine understand
of the origins and development of sociocultural
mind. Their statements show the relevance of the first results of Vigotsky’s
studies in an honest criticism of “troika” members (the team of researchers
under Vigotsky’s direction). They both admit the limits of their first studies,
focusing just on the role taken by verbal systems within the collaborative building
process of sociocultural mind.
Vigotsky
himself explicitly admitted his personal dialectical-materialist-historical
belief in the origins of human psyche
in human relational and collaborative practical activity as anyone can observe by reading his courageous
opposition to John’s (1963) biblical first line “In the beginning was the Word”
(John 1:1, p.95). Vigotsky emphatically said: “the word was not in the
beginning – the action was there before that; the word is at the end of the development,
it is the coronation of action” (Vygotsky, 1993, p. 131).
AT
tries to understand how activity sets
in physiological mechanisms using the plastic aspect of nerve connections, and stresses
subjective senses as double mediation between persons and human
artifacts as sociocultural and symbolic relational occasions (Leontiev,
1983).
CHAT,
in fact, promotes interchanges between “speech” or “symbolic” centered
investigations of CHT (Luria, 1994, 1987) and “occupational” or “laborist” investigations
of AT (Engenstrôm, 1990, 1987). In doing so, it stresses on the interactionist (interactive) dynamics of
meaning negotiations at several relational levels of human practical activity, mediated by sign systems and
tools (Alvarez, del Rio, & Wertch, 1998).
Plastic Aspect of Activity
There
is substantial agreement on the impact of sign systems on psyche activity, particularly on the fact that
they reshape unmediated modes of human interactions between one another and the
natural world. This undoubtedly improves them (Oliveira & Oliveira, 1999;
Rego, 1995). Osório
(1999) describes psyche empowerment by sign systems well well:
By
sign systems, human beings fit sense to the world, they raise thinking and are
conceived by thought. Language is what makes it possible that people move
between objective and abstract
realities and relating past to present and future. Without language, human
beings would stay forever attached to present without any possibility of reflection
or any genuine understanding. (p. 177).
According
to CHT, mind
in society development is a process linked to the appropriation of social concepts
by people, under educational interventions, through collaborative and intentional
(conscious) use of word meanings. CHT asserts that verbal thinking is what
gives rise to a sociocultural psyche.
In such a perspective, only by it is possible for people to go ahead in present
time feelings and impressions and break the boundaries of perceptual zone of “sensational
objects sensibility” (Husserl, 2005).
AT, I have noted, insists on pointing upon the very
importance of subjective (personal) meanings
and the role of other sign systems over alphanumerical ones for psyche
collaborative activity. It conceives labor practices and social interactions as
a relational arena where overrun of meanings negotiation occurs. AT argues that
verbal language cannot be taken as the exclusive carrier of meaning in social psyche functioning (Leontiev,
1983).
Cultural
Psychology interactionist approach of mind in society as a cultural-historical relational and
collaborative endeavor is what currently guides my point of view on mixed kinds
of language and their impact over dynamic and development of psyche activity.
It is easy to see that mixed kinds of language in
general use by TCI users are efficient ways to improve relationships within
contemporary social practices and initiate new modes of psyche activity.
The cyber network paradigm helps us understand how
many languages can be interwoven by simultaneously making sense actions using
verbal and other sign systems (Bacalarski, 1994; Leontiev, 1983; Luria, 1987). Network
is the key metaphor to open knowledge on plastic and flexible psyche activity.
According to Deleuse & Guatarri
(1983), rizoma (plenty of unhierarchical
and interconnected roots to refer to unpredictable, fast and dynamic make-meaning
by simultaneous use of different kinds of sign systems) is the closest paradigm
of psyche functioning. It refers the way of thought so-called
complex or media thinking (Morin, 1990).
From a media thinking perspective, concepts are not available in any
sequence or “stages” as they were supposed to be by Vigotsky and his TCH. Both
social (scientific) and everyday (spontaneous) concepts, according to CP,
should be understood as “nodes” of a make-meaning network without sharp boundaries
between one another, like images made of pixels (small, untouchable, digital bright
points used to compose visual representations on TV and PC screens). That is
how CP conceives plastic, dialectical and flexible psyche dynamics and what
justifies its claim for a critical review of a logic used by TCH to describe the
process of appropriation of concepts by subject.
It is well-known that Vigotsky, Luria and Eisenstein (1990a,
1990b) worked hard together upon understanding how social concepts and
metacognition developmental processes occur when psyche is under movie
“writing” impact. They focused on what at that time they called “proto-language”
(rudimental language) or “subjective speech” – a mixed kind of meaning-making that
emerges through verbal and visual thinking, typical of audiovisual sense. Unfortunately,
their investigations were brought to an end by Stalinist bureaucratic
intolerance (Cabral, 2008; Valsiner & Veer, 1996).
Before politics handcuffed his thinking, Eisenstein (1990b)
asserted that movie “writing” is “a rebuilding of thinking process laws” (p.
102) and openly asserted that psyche activity, when flooded by extra-verbal
sign systems, reveals “a curious kind of sensorial thinking that allows a
genuine sensorial-emotional effect” (p. 124). Eisenstein himself (1990a) mentioned
those “subversive” researches with Luria and Vigotsky, that focus on “sounds
and sensations connecting one another and with emotions” (p. 91-92)
Digital media promotes abolition of traditional
material supports used by sign systems representations (Berckeley, 2005). They
become visible but not touchable because of bits
- untouchable unity based on light-speed numbers combination (Calazans, 1997).
Technical development that makes possible the creation
of virtual realities (VRs), sided by nerves alternative connections of psyche
(Luria, 1991) led CHAT to fit media
paradigm conception of plastic aspect
of psyche activity.
Cognitive Diversity
CHAT uses the network or web metaphor to refer the
plastic aspect of activity in parallel
to subjective “double mediation” of
AT and the role it takes on meaning negotiations within social relations and
cultural interactionist practices (face to face or not, simultaneous or not,
mediated by different sign systems).
It is easy to admit
that “reading” and “writing” digital hypertexts affect psyche activity. More
and more people make contemporary use of mixed sign systems to improve their
social relations and collaborative practices mediated by TCI and cyberspace (Levy,
1999).
Extra-alphanumeric sign systems used within
communicative processes between humans become current and their efficacy to
increase interactionist and collaborative relational social meaning-making are
undoubtedly real and related to each and every singular process of “double
mediation” or subjective action. Primiano (1990) remarks about the strong
impact of images over psyche activity where she says “they have generalized use
and tend to be so hegemonic to the point that some people assert they will replace the
written word” (p. 206).
Undoubtedly, general
use of TCI contributes to cognitive diversity and demands more research on
mixed sign systems, “new-formations” (rudimental language), origins, and
development, of as well as their impact on verbal sign system enriching by
meaning-making possibilities (Lèvy, 1998; Santaela, 1983).
Fighting for
cognitive diversity linked to TCI general use as much as to “double mediation”
within collaborative relational human practices does not mean giving less
importance to the alphanumeric sign systems on social mind constitution processes. On the contrary, it is a drive
on verbal language empowerment by different sign systems and modes of knowing.
Is it possible
for a one to become a fluent TCI user without verbal literacy? That is what Gomez
(2004) asks: “General computer use by people points to a return to verbal
(speaking and writing) thinking. It is not possible to be a TCI competent user
if one does not know how to make use of alphanumeric and other sign systems”
(p. 59).
Cognitive and
knowing diversity are usually described by contemporary studies as “natural” psyche activity (Gardner, 1994; Goleman,
1995). From CP’s point of view, people learn
different cultural-historical modes of being and thinking and negotiate
meanings within each and every relational social interaction, making use of personal
“double mediation.” This kind of literacy permits efficiency using plenty of
cultural artifacts and internalization
of material world aspects as means of mediation (Cole, 1998b, p.163).
Apprenticeship, from CP perspective, occur within
negotiated and relational social interactions of meaning-making in which one
effectively participant shares cultural artifacts that have been historically
developed.
Interactionism or interaction has many meanings: (1) a
particular route to access contents by friendly (intuitive) interfaces (screen
touch technology used between humans and machines to give commands) as well as (2)
subjects and ideas linked by a network of different mixed sign systems.
In addition to these two meanings, it can refer to (3)
inter-relations between people with different expertise in making using tools
and sign systems (cultural artifacts).
CHAT interactionism
approach to human apprenticeship focuses on negotiated and relational
meaning-making by people (double mediation) embedded into cultural-historical
environments where they are engaged in varied
collaborative endeavors.
Since CHAT,
interactionist or socioculturalist perspective of every human apprenticeship
presupposes collaborative meaning-making actions described as: (1) guided participation – based on explicit
instructions of more fluent users of a community cultural toolkit and (2) participatory appropriation – knowledge obtainable
from “imitation” of community elder members’ actions (Rogoff, 1988) or by
singular “chaotic reaction” (Pavlov, 2005).
In place of these
two categories developed by CP to refer diametrically sociocultural-historical
modes of humans apprenticeship, I suggest a promising third category: (3) voluntary immersion – something like
that intuitive, ludic and intentional acceptance of “consensual alienation” in
order to pretend and “live” immaterial realities, typical
of cyber RPG (role-playing games) or in the efficient use of mechanical body parts
by mutilated people (Burdea & Coiffet, 1994).
Pedagogical Repercussion of Plastic Aspect of Psyche activity
Human relational
environment within which everyday and extraordinary sociocultural practices occur
have been traditionally understood by CP as a zone of proximal development (ZPD).
The ZPD is a metaphor used by Vigotsky (2001) to refer
to the human cultural appropriation process, and
is in general used by psychologists and teachers to estimate the distance
between real and potential levels of solving problems. But the first intention
of Vigotsky’s metaphor was the opposite of the hegemonic belief in the “static”
measurement of people’s intelligence, as proposed by Binet&Simon: “The failure
of these kinds of experimental researches is that they are based on an
absolutely wrong idea of some general capacity of mind” (p. 297-306).
The hegemonic cognitive and modernist beliefs and its
obsessive search for one’s abilities measurement had contaminated original
meaning of the ZPD and can be easily found in several sociocultural studies
focusing on its pragmatic use in school education. Such a narrow understanding
of Vigosky’s metaphor had been reported by sociocultural researches that have a
larger and more flexible conception of the ZDP, such as those undertaken by Holzman & Newman (2002, 2006).
Although an interactionist (interactive) approach to
human apprenticeship has become very popular
in educational studies focusing on cyber literacy and people school internet
use, they have not been enough to promote a critical view of asymmetrical power
relatinos of face-to-face, blended learning or e-learning practices over one’s
psyche. On the contrary, they reinforce hegemonic “modeling” of the psychological
and educational conceptions of “teaching” (Andrade&Vicari, 2003).
Fast and easy understanding of the complex relations between learning
and teaching are typical use of Vigotsky’s ZPD metaphor in educational use in a
“ready-made opinion” or “prêt-à-porter” fashion. They had been used as a theoretical
foundations for various “instructionist” proposals focusing on school education
of different grades.
TCI meditational use in school
education, in my opinion, should contribute to empower people’s critical
thinking as well as different modes of being and knowing, particularly in consequence
of contemporary network paradigm to refer to the plastic aspect of psyche activity.
Ludic pretending, typical of
electronic games, can be taken as of cyber culture soul. By pretending, people
can live other lives and take different roles in play, putting their
imaginative capability in motion. They can try other points of view and move from
where they are by “consent hallucination” and “voluntary immersion” into
imaginary scenarios such as occur in VR (virtual realities) at play (Baudrillard,
1991; Turkle, 1989).
Voluntary immersion is a promising way to understand cognitive psyche activity, because it puts
in motion typical human subjective apprenticeship
and demands fast and “intuitive” interactionist performance, guided by leading
purposes of ZPD-specific design, like the so-called “directive occupation” school
education planning for collaborative practices (Davidov, 1988).
This particular kind of cognition (voluntary immersion) can be easily found
in general media thinking blender use. Ludic pretending demands alternative
modes of knowing: people drive their attention to routes interruptions and to
unpredictable tasks in “iconsphere” of cyberspace (Rushkoff, 1999; Tapscott, 1999).
So iconsphere refers the hypermedia environment of VRs
(virtual realities) – a topological and non-Euclidian ruled relational space in
which meaning-make presupposes putting side by
side (intentionally or not) different kinds of
meaning transporters - most of them
audio-visual ones. Knowing in “iconsphere” deserts teleological, serial and
traditional paradigms of knowledge building.
It asks for subject relational engagement in meaning-making
negotiation processes based on the use of multimedia aids like those that occur
in film montage according to Eisenstein’s (1990a) conception: a very singular
kind of speach.
This singular kind of symbolic writing fusion that puts
sounds, words and images side by side does not use abstract concepts in a traditional,
alphanumeric sign-system way. It presupposes a psyche metaphorical organization
ability that is based on the urgent challenges of a sensitive world: the so-called
cognitive patchwork or “intellectual bricolage” (Levi-Strauss, 1976).
Knowledge and knowing by voluntary immersion in ludic pretending may be considered half-built
and plastic, as it is performative: a continuous process of interchange
negotiation meaning-making (Japiassu, 2010).
Interactivity and interconnection mediated by TCI reinforce and value
cognitive diversity and a fast link between ideas and data. Voluntary immersion
make it possible for one to do different tasks at the same time.
Plastic and unpredictable aspects of psyche activity, as consequence of the
frequent use of TIC, scare teachers, psychologists and people who are not comfortable
taking un-sequential conceptions of knowing, typical of meaning-making
processes within ludic and improvisational pretending.
The assumption of roles and avatars sets an example of subjects’ radical
refusal to submit to “static” and stigmatized ways of thinking and being. When
“dressing” an avatar, one feels free to hold other points of view and perform
as who he/she is becoming (Holzman & Newman, 2006). Avatars are “virtual
personalities” that can be discharged at any
time and therefore, are the key to enlarge our understandig of how people
interact one another within cyber relational practices RVs (Assis & Prado,
2001).
Easing taking e-roles points to the provisory nature
of meaning-making processes mediated by TCI as one is embedded in cyberspace and
relates oneself to another with machines. It can be taken as a metaphor to demonstrate
the contemporary psyche activity dynamic (Gomez, 2004).
Last
Remarks
To admit psyche activity enrichment by the general use of TCI does not
means to close one’s eyes on the risks of “ready-made” opinions over the
Web and reinforcement of “idiot-savants” (information collectors and fluent
users of machines) also named “fast thinkers”. It is necessary to keep in mind
“unreasonable” dimensions of intuitive knowing processes (Ramal, 2003).
Ludic living of immaterial realities can give rise to
two conceptions of apprenticeship through
voluntary immersion: “blind look” (unconscious) and “critical look”
(conscious). The second demands educational interventions to focus on ordinary
thinking “aspects” or “meaning chains” deconstruction. In other words, educators
engage people liberation from webs that oppress their subjective expression (Mrech,
1999).
Human-friendly machine interfaces and mechanical body
parts in general use points to a closer relationship between human
subjective and machines: a particular and curious way of being and thinking
called cyborg thought by some scholars
(Alves & Nova, 2003). Mixed human and machine actions demand a new
conception of being: “machine-falasser” human (Lacan, 1982).
One’s voluntary immersion
into imaginary iconsphere world demand no doubt instant satisfaction of desires
and leaves behind traditional cognition ways of knowing. It puts in motion
intuitive thinking and makes the verbal negotiation process fragile by urgent
and affective discharges at the most in automatic and unreasonable fashion.
There are a few
researches that focus on the impact over emotional and cognitive life of people
who interact for a long time into the cyberspace and how iconsphere literacy
empowers psyche activity. However, there
is too much speculations. It causes stress, intolerance to the long-run verbal
negotiation processes (spoken or written) on parallel to its worth when faster
and higher automatic performances are required or engagements in tasks that
demand patchwork thinking.
Results of researches on this issue using the CP
approach have not been available. I think it is reasonable to promote and support
rigorous investigations on the plastic aspect of activity, particularly on the
extension of general contemporary use of media thinking to empower human psyche.
Studies that
focus on these questions would be useful to psychologists and educators (particularly
from a cultural-historical psychology perspective) and could help people better
understand their ways of being and thinking and interacting when subjected to
school literacy. (Rego, 2002, p. 73)
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